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App e aranc e : I t s S oc i a l M e a n i n g
By Lo r ne T ep p erm an
In h is c lassic sociol ogic al w ork Asy lu ms, Ervin g Go ff ma n n ot es t h at t h e f irs t st ep t ak en b y a t o t al i n st i t u t ion, su c ha s a p ris on or m en t al h os p it al is t o re – socializ e a n i n mat e, b y s ep ara t in g th e in ma t e f ro m ol d id en t it ies an d i d en t if i ers. 1 Int e re st in gly , th is p r oc ess b e gin s b y ch an gin g
th e in ma t e’s a pp earan c e —f or examp l e, b y f o rcin g t h e in mat e t o w ea r a n i n st it ut i on al u n if or m, w h ile re mo vi n g allin d ivi du al i d e nt i f ier s s u c h as j ewellery or p erso n al ass et s. Of t en t h e i n mat e is f orced t o w ea r a gen eric h airst yl e, w h ic his an o t h er w ay o f re gime nt i n g t h e b o d y an d
elim in a t in g i nd ivi du ali t y. Th e l oss o f o n e’s ow n c lo th in g sign i f ies th e loss of an ol d i d en t it y an d social st at u s. T h ea d o pt i on o f a n i n st i t u t ion al u n i f orm rep r ese n t s e nt ry i n t o a low – st a tu s c ommun i t y o f id en t ic al i n mat es or s ub j ect s. Int h is re al se n se, t h e ol d max im is t ru e t h at “c lot h es mak e t h e m an ” ( or w oman ) . Hu mb l e c lo t h es mak e hu m b le p eo p le .
Con sid er t h e hu m b le un i f orms w or n b y mem b ers of th e Salvat i on Arm y — a re ligio u s organ iz at io n d evo t ed t ou rb a n goo d w ork s, o rigi n ally in volvin g t h e m oral u p lif t o f f alle n p eop l e. Win st o n n ot es t h at t h e p opu lar image of Salvat io n Arm y w ome n ch an ge d du ri n g t h e p eri od
188 0 – 19 18 , du e in p ar t t o t h eir ad o pt i on of p lai n , u n f ash i on a b le c lo th i n g, w h ic h en a b le d t h em t o e n t er pu b lic p lacessu c h as saloo n s t o d o t h eir w ork w ith ou t c rit ic ism. 2 So d re sse d , S alvat io n Arm y w omen p ract is ed s p irit u al w arf a re onest a b lish ments th a t p ro mo t ed sin a n d vic e. Th eir un if orm, d ram a t ic ally se vere , c ame t o re p re sen t t rad i t io n al servicean d ol d -f as h io n ed virt u e.
Th e c o nn ec t ion b et w ee n ap p ea ran c e, c lothin g, an d sel f h as b e en k n ow n a n d c ommen t ed on f or a l on g t ime .Th e n i n et ee n t h – c en t u ry Sc ot t ish n ov elist an d essayist T h omas Carly le w rot e ab o u t c lothin g m et a ph o rically in h i s c omicw ork Sa rtor Resa rtus. Th ere h e u se d c lot h in g t o st a n d in f o r al l sy mb ols o f se lf . P eop l e u se c lothin g an d o t h er i t em s re la t ed t o t h eir app ea r an c e t o c on st r u c t th eir p e rson al id e nt i t ies w ith in t h e c on t ext of t h e ir d aily liv es. H ow ever ,p erso n al i d e nt i t ies ar e lin k e d t o social i d en t it ies. Clot h es d ef i n e ou r p lace, r ole, a n d p osit io n i n th e social ord er.Carly le b elie ved t h at “c lot h es p re se n t u s t o ou rselves an d t o th e w orld ” as w e n ego t iat e o u r f re e d om of d re sse d se lf – exp r ession . 3
In t u rn , societ y af f ect s b ot h w h at w e re veal an d c on c ea l o f o u r b od ies . 4 So c ial p re ssur es
c on st an t ly un d erm in e o u r c h oic e a n d re du c e t h e b asic righ t o f sel f – ex p re s sion . A s a re su l t , c lot h es n ever re veal t h ew h ole sel f , sin c e t h ey ma y b e im p ose d o n u s or w e may u s e c lothes t o c on c ea l o u rselves. Howe ver, given some c h oic ei n h ow w e d re ss, th e c h oic es w e mak e t ell th e w orld w h o w e t h in k w e a re , an d w h o w e w an t t o b e.
N ot su r p risin gly , a p p ea ra n c e n orms ar e ge nd er ed — lik e man yot h er social n orms. N ot on ly are me n a n d w ome n ju d ged b y d if f er en t ap p ea ran c e st a nd ar d s; t h e y also w ea r d if f ere n tk ind s o f c lothin g, acc ord i n g t o t h eir d i ff e re n t soci al ro les an d st a tu ses. Tak e p ock et s:
1 Irv in g G of fm an , As ylum s : E ss a ys o n th e S o c ial S itua tio n o f Men ta l Pa tien ts an d Othe r I n ma te s (G ard e n City , N Y : Doub le d ay An ch or ,1961).
2 Dian e W in s ton . “ Liv in g in th e Material W orld : T h e Ch an ging Ro le o f Sa l v at ion Army W om e n , 1880 – 1918, ” J o u r na l o f Ur ba n H is to r y 28(20 03), 4: 466- 8 7.
3 T h om as Carly le , Sa r to r Re s a r t u s (Bos ton , Mas s .: G in n an d Com p an y , 1896).
4 William J. R. Ke en an , Dr e ss e d to Imp r e ss : Loo kin g th e Pa r t (Oxford : Be r g , e d . 2001 ).
h ist orically, p ock et s on w omen ‘s clot h in g h ave b ee n smal ler a n d f ewer th an p ock et s o n me n ‘s c lot h in g. Fo r w om en ,p o ck et s h ave b ee n d ecor at i ve, f or me n p ract ic al. Ev en t od ay, men and w omen u s e t h eir p ock et s d if f ere nt ly ( th a t ‘s whyw omen c arry pu rses), a n d p ock et s p lay a p art in t h e c o n st r u c t io n of g e nd er.
Und erwear is also gen d e red , th o u gh u s u ally unse en exc ep t b y t h eir w ea re rs an d int ima t e ac qu ai nt a n c es . M en ‘su n d erwear t e nd s t o b e s tu r d y and p lain . Women ‘s u n d erwear t en d s t o b e f limsy an d d ecor at ive, as t h o u gh i t w as ond isp lay as p art of t h e ma t in g game . Wh en mid d le- c lass w om en b egan t o w ea r u n d er p an t s in t h e ea rly 1 80 0s, th eir”d rawers” w er e f em in i z e d b y f a b ric, o r n a men t a t io n , a n d an op e n c rot c h . 5 Su c h o p en d rawe rs on re sp ec t ab l e, sup p osed ly p assion l ess w omen p re sen t e d f em al e sexua li t y as b ot h e rot ic an d mo d est . I n th e t w ent ie t h c en tu ry,h ow e ver, w omen d em an d ed c rot c h es in t h eir d rawers, t o es t ab lis h th ei r sexua l p r op ri et y. Wome n in c re asin gly c h os e t ow ea r c lose d d r aw ers d u rin g a p erio d o f
w omen ‘s gre a t er p u b lic p re sen c e an d f em in ist ac t ivism. Th is c h an g e sy mb olically close d t h e gap b et w ee n me n a n dw ome n .
Even t od ay, t h e t ype of u nd erwea r k n ow n as “lin g erie ” is p art ic u larly i n ves t ed w it h mean in gs of f e min i n it y,s exu alit y, a n d p lea s u re . 6 M ass- mar k et lin ge rie, se x t oys , an d ot h er “p erson al” p r od u c t s ar e sold t o w ome n th r ou gh t h eu se o f p art ic u lar s t rategies an d imag es. Th e p ro cesses o f ch oosin g an d b u yi n g li n gerie in volv e id en t if ic a t ion s of gen d er,sexua lit y, an d sen su ali t y, e ve n t h o u gh t h e garm en t s t h em selves are rar e ly if ever w or n i n p u b lic. M o re over, th ey h ol dim p licat io n s o f c lass ( an d c lassi n ess) . T h e c lass c on n ot a t io n s o f mass- mar k et li n geri e are u se d b y w ork ing – an d lowermid d le – c lass w o men t o d ist i n gu is h t h em selves f ro m h ig h er – c lass w omen w h o are t h ereb y d ef i n e d as p re t ent iou s,b orin g, or t as t ele ss.
Fash ion s, t h en , d eclar e a p erso n ‘s ge nd er an d c la ss, an d t h ey also d ec lar e et h n ic origi n s. In mu l t ic u l tu ral u r b an ar ea s, women ‘s f ash i on ch oic es are c los ely t i ed t o i ssues of sel f – d ef i n it i on . Fo r exam p le, youn g Asia n a n d w h it e w omen livin g i n u rb a n , “m u lt i – c u lt u ral” ar ea s i n th e United Kin gd om ex p r ess t h eir d if f ere nt ly s exu a liz ed an d raciali z e d f em aleid en t it ies t h rou g h st yl es of ap p ea ra n c e a n d t ast es in c lothin g, h airs t yl es, an d c osmet ic s . 7 In d oin g so, t h ey are mak in gst a t em e nt s a b o u t w h o t h ey are an d h ow t h ey d i f f er f ro m c o n ven t i on al U n it e d Ki n gd om st yl e an d c u l t u re .
As w e saw w it h d egra d at ion c ere mon i es in t ot al i n st it ut i on s, wh enp eo p le in a u t h ori t y w an t t o c o nt ro l p eop l e, t h ey t ry t o c on t ro l t h eir mod es of d re ss. T h is h as b ee n evid en t in t h e h ist oryof f ash ion in f asc i st c ou nt ri es, an d i t is t r u e of d r ess c od es f o r sc h o ol c h ild re n in ou r ow n societ y. Pa u licelli n o t es t h atI t aly under th e f asc is t d ic t at o r M u ssoli n i u s ed f ash i on t o d isc ip li n e th e social b ody – – esp ecially w omen ‘s bod ies— an d t oc re a t e an i d e nt i f iab l e n at io n al s t y le. 8 Th e issue o f sc h o ol un if orms in o u r socie t y — a p ract ic e of imp osin g d re ss co d e s t ore gime n t p eo p le’s
5 J ill Fi e ld s , ” E ro tic Mode s ty : (A d )dre s s in g Fe m ale Se xu alit y an d P rop rie ty in Op e n an d Close d Dra we r s , US A, 1800 –
1930 ,” G ende r & H is to r y 14 (2 002), 3 :4 9 2- 5 15.
6 Me rl St orr, “ Cl as s y L in ge ri e ,”‖ Fem inist Review 71 ( 2002 ): 1 8 – 36.
7 H e le n Mals on , H arie tt e Marsh all, an d Ann e W oolle tt , “T alk in g o f Tas t e : A Di s cou r s e An al y tic E xp lora tio n o f Youn g
Wo me n’ s G e nd e re d an d Ra cia lize d Sub jec tiv itie s in Bri tis h U rb an , Mu lticu ltu ral Con texts ,” Fem inism & P s ycho log y
12 (20 0 2) 4: 4 69- 90.
8 Eu ge n ia Pau lice lli, “ Fashion , th e P olitics o f Sty le an d N at ion al Id e n tit y in P re – Fas ci s t Italy,”‖ G ende r & H is to r y 14 (2002) 3: 537 – 59.
self – exp re ssion —b ri n gs u p a varie t y o f issues t h a t in c l ud e saf e t y, e gali t ari an ism, social in c lu sion , an dma rk et in g th a t e n c ou rage s st ud e n t s t o d re ss co m p e t it ively . 9
Lef t on t h eir ow n , a n d u n less re qu ir ed t o w ea r u n if orms, you n g p eo p le d evelo p c lo th i n g asp irat i on s very ea rly i nl if e. Eve n b ef o re a d olesce n c e, at ages 8 t o 12 , ch il d re n b egi n mak in g p ro d u c t d ecision s an d b u ild in g kn ow led ge ab o u td if f ere n t p ro du c t s an d b rand s . 10 A d esir e t o c onf orm t o a pp ea r an c e n orms i nf l u en c es t h eir s h op p in g b e h aviou r,esp e c ially with re ga rd t o c lot h in g p u rch ase c rit eri a an d sh o pp i n g i nd e p e n d en c e. As p re ad ol escen t s age, t h ey ac qu ire mor e o f th e n orms a n d i nf orm at io n n ee d ed t o m ak e in f orme d c lothin g d e c ision s. Con f ormit y c on c ern s i nf l u en c e h owc h ild re n sh op , wh om th e y sh op w ith , an d w h at th ey pu rc h ase.
Cloth in g is a n exp re ssion of b o t h in d ividu a l an d c ollect ive i d e nt i t y e ven a mon g 1 0 t o 11 year old s. 11 Relax in g t h ee nf orcem en t o f sc h o ol a p p ea ran c e n orms ( i.e., a d re ss cod e) all ow s pup ils t o u se c lothin g t o gain re c og n it i on , f orgec ommo n b o nd s, an d sh ar e in t ere s t s w ith i n p ee r grou p c u lt u re s. I t also, h ow ever , serves t o d ist i n g u ish a n d sep ar at et h ose w h o f i t i n w it h social exp ect at i on s of d re ssi n g in p op u lar f ash io n s, a n d th ose w h o d o n o t . Cert ai n it em s a n d b ra n dn ame s— f or examp le, D o c M art en s — ac qu ir e a s p ecif ic , sy mb olic val u e f or pu r p oses o f c onf ormi t y o r re b ellio n . Pu p ilsw h o c o nf o rm t o t h e sc h o ol d re ss r u les ma y sat isf y th e f o rma l requ ir em e nt s of t h eir i n s t it ut io n b u t r u n a h ig h ris k of b ein gst igma t iz e d a n d exc lu d ed b y th eir
p ee rs.
Our t en d en c y t o c o nf or m t o ap p ea ra n c e n orms, lea rn e d f ro mc h ild h oo d on w ard , la rgely c ont in ue s t h rou g h ou t li f e. Th is re su l t s in a w id es p re ad in t ere s t i n “f ash io n .”
9 An n Bod in e , ” Scho ol Un if or m s an d Dis cou rs e s o n Ch ildh oo d ,” C h ildhoo d 10 (2003) 1 :4 3 – 63.
1 0 De b orah J.C . M e y e r an d H e ath e r C. And e rs on , ” Pr e ad ole s c e n ts an d App are l Pu rch asi n g: Con f ormity t o P are n ts
an d P ee rs in th e Con s u me r So cializa tio n P ro ce s s ,” J ou r na l o f S o c ial Beha viou r an d Pe rs ona lity (20 0 0) 15, 2: 243 – 57.
1 1 J on Sw ain , “ T h e Ri gh t Stu ff : F ashion in g an d Id e n tit y th rou g h Cloth in g in a Jun ior Scho ol, ” G ende r an d E du c a tio n
14 (20 0 2) 1: 5 3 – 69.
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